Examples of Test Item

These were actually my answer for my mid test of Language Assessment class.
Hope it will be useful. :)

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Pengalaman Pertama Facial dan Pembelian Produk di Larissa Skin Care

Sekedar berbagi pengalaman aja. he
Sebelumnya aku tuh gak yang terlalu seneng urusin masalah muka. Tapi seiring bertambahnya umur (opz :D) maka timbul niatan mulai pengin ngrawat muka. hehe
Ini pengalaman pertamaku facial di Larissa, lebih tepatnya bener-bener pengalaman pertama facial sih. hehe
Setelah browsing dan tanya sono tanya sini sama temen-temen akhirnya aku putusin buat milih Larissa. Kenapa?
pertama: dari temen dan sodara yg udah pake, banyak yang cocok tuh.
kedua: dari browsing, dibandingkan dengan produk lain, produk larissa cenderung aman cz (katanya) dari bahan2 alami yang ga bikin kecanduan alias bikin efek samping aneh-aneh.
ketiga: dibandingkan dengan skin care (resmi) lain, larissa lebih murah, dikit. :P Ga terlalu berat buat kantong mahasiswa.
keempat: di kotaku juga udah ada gerai resminya.
kelima: siapa tau setelah jerawat pergi, seseorangpun dateng. eh? :D
Alesan kelima cuma bonus aja deh. :D

Jeng jeng jeng jeeeeeenngggg
Begini ceritanya:
Pertama dateng ke Larissa (C. Simanjuntak, Jogja) aku langsung disambut baik sama mbak-mbak CS. Agak bingung sih, tp untungnya dateng bareng sama temen (yg sayangnya juga baru pertama kali ke Larissa :D). Langsung aja deh ngomong ke mbak CS kalo mau facial. Mbak CS minta ktp buat identitas bikin member card. Abis selese urusan sama mbak CS trus aku sama temenku disuruh nunggu di ruang tengah. Enak juga sih tempetnya. Wangiiiiiiii. Nggak perlu nunggu lama (karna tanggal tua kali ya jadi ga banyak pelanggan :P), aku sama temenku dipanggil buat konsultasi ke dokter. GRATIIIIZZZ. Dan bisa minta bareng kok sama temenku. hehe. Abis tu langsung menuju ke mbak CS lg buat nyerahin kertas dari dokter. Nah setelah itu jeng jeng jeng jeeeeeennngg menuju ke ruang facial. Sebelumnya dikasih kemben gitu trus disuruh ke lante 3. Dan gak perlu nunggu juga, lagi2 lumayan ga rame banget. Abis ganti kemben dan naruh barang2 di loker, ternyata mbak2nya udah ada yg nungguin buat dianter ke 'tempat berbaring' yang mana. Udah deh dimulai facialnya.
Pertama, mukaku dibersihin dan dipijet2 dikit gitu. Lumayan enak sampe pengen merem terus. :D abis tu ga tau diapain mukaku, tapi rasanya kayak disetrum2 dalam skala kecil banget. Gak sakit sih, tp ga enak juga rasanya :(. setelah itu mataku dikasih timun trus diuapin deh mukaku. Pertamanya sih ga kerasa panas tp lama-lama kok ya panas dan gak enak. Huh, pengen deh cepet-cepet diudahin aja. Fiuh, untung setelah beberapa menit ada mbak2 dateng buat nyingkirin tuh yang buat nguapin. Tapi penderitaan ternyata baru akan dimualai. Mbak2nya ga tau sih ngomong apa tepatnya, tp samar-samar terdengar permintaan maaf. Aku ya iya iya aja. Eh, agak denger juga "jarumnya masih baru ya mbak." Widwwwuuuuwwww, perasaan mulai gak enak ni. :(. Dan peperangan baru dimulai. Awalnya ga gitu sakit banget, yah kerasa cekit-cekit dikit lah. Tapi beeeeehhh, tiba di bagian di jerawat yg baru tumbuh mulai dipencet-pencet. Udah lah, dinikmati aja. Pikirku. Ditahan aja lah sakitnya, gak ada suara "aw, aw" sambil berdoa moga cepet selese :D. Akhirnya sampe juga dipenghujung 'peperangan'. Samar-samar denger suara mbaknya "Maaf ya mbak, udah menyakiti." Gak tau kenapa kok aku ngomong "Iya mbak, sakiiiittt". Dan tak kuasa air mata netes dari ujung mata. Hiks. "Ini mbak tisu." Wah, udah disiapin aja ni tisu. Tau aja kalo aku bakalan mewek. :D. Kesimpulanku, gak cuma aku aja yang mewek gara-gara facial. haha
Treatment terakhir sih udah enak. Setelah 'peperangan' mukaku langsung dikasih es batu. Ceeeessssss.. rasanya surga. hehe. abis itu dikasih alat yg agak nyetrum-nyetrum dikit gitu. Gak enak juga sih. Next, maskeraaaann. Mbak2nya lagi-lagi sopan banget. Terlalu sopan malah, dikit-dikit minta maaf. :D Setelah masker didiemin selama 15 menit, maskernya dibersihin. Enaaaaakkk rasanya. Dan terakhiiiirrrr, mukaku diolesin obat jerawat deh.
Yup SELESAI sudah facialnya.
abis itu ganti baju, trus turun ke kasir buat bayar dan ambil produk.
Agak manyun juga sih pas di kasir.
Untuk Green Tea Facial, facial foam green tea 100ml, milk cleanser, acne lotion, day cream, night cream TOTALNYA Rp 245.000.
Sekian dulu mengenai facial dan pembelian pertama produk di Larissa.
Semoga bermanfaat :)

A Silly Worry

2 Februari 2013,
Hari kebahagiaanmu, hari kebahagiaanku juga pastinya.
Tapi setelah hari itu kadang terselip suatu kekhawatiran dalam diriku. Silly banget sih. Tapi inilah yang aku rasa. Bukannya aku khawatir mba akan gagal menjalankan peran baru mba sebagai seorang istri dan juga sebagai seorang ibu nantinya, aku yakin kok mba akan dapat melakukannya dengan sangat baik. Anyway, kekhawatiranku ini hanyalah kekhawatiran seorang anak kecil, seorang adik. Ya, aku hanya takut suatu saat nanti rasa sayang dan perhatian mba akan berkurang atau bahkan mba akan lupa peran mba sebagai seorang kakak. 

Konyol ‘kan?
Biarlah. Karna inilah sepotong gambaran bahwa mba sangat sangat sangat...berarti buatku. 

Jadi, please, always be my lovely sista.
Coz you can’t imagine how much I love you :) 

http://www.facebook.com/wijaya.rny?fref=ts 

A Dark Brown Dog by Steven Crane_Review

By Dwi Mufit Wijayanti

One day the little boy found a little dark brown dog when he was walking along sidewalk. The little boy called the dog and the dog came to him. The child starts to pet him and the dog is very happy, so happy that he almost knocks the child over. Then, the child beat the dog. However, the dog just prayed for the little boy. When the little boy arrived at his home, he realized that the dog followed him. The little boy beat the dog again. This happened many times but the little dog was persistent. When the child reached his doorstep, he allowed the dog to come and be his pet. Suddenly they became best friend. Unfortunately, the little boy’s parents went home and found their child was playing with the dog. The parents were not very happy that the child brought the dog in the house. The child said to the parents that the dog is very valuable for him. One day the father came home drunk. He maltreated the dog and he took the dog, swung it around his head, and threw him out the window. The dog landed on a roof five stories below and then rolled into the alleyway.  The child rushed downstairs and sat by the dog’s body.

Generally, ‘A Dark Brown Dog’ is a good story. The story is about a friendship of a little boy and a dog. Although the story just about a dog, by reading this short story we can learn about a true friendship loyalty from a dog. The little boy seemed like from a not really good family. It looked like he was lonely so he walked the city by himself and finally met the dog. He can get more love from the dog than from the parents. His father often came home drunk in the evening. Although the dog was maltreated by the father, the dog still wants to be there with the boy. Whenever the dog would be beaten, he always felt guilty and never held a grudge against the child. Moreover, whenever the dog felt something bad to him, he just prayed. It remains us to believe in God. So, when we find difficulties or problems in our life we have to pray and be optimist that God is by our side.

A Dark Brown Dog

A Short Story by Stephen Crane

A Child was standing on a street-corner. He leaned with one shoulder against a high board-fence and swayed the other to and fro, the while kicking carelessly at the gravel.

 Sunshine beat upon the cobbles, and a lazy summer wind raised yellow dust which trailed in clouds down the avenue. Clattering trucks moved with indistinctness through it. The child stood dreamily gazing.

 After a time, a little dark-brown dog came trotting with an intent air down the sidewalk. A short rope was dragging from his neck. Occasionally he trod upon the end of it and stumbled.

 He stopped opposite the child, and the two regarded each other. The dog hesitated for a moment, but presently he made some little advances with his tail. The child put out his hand and called him. In an apologetic manner the dog came close, and the two had an interchange of friendly pattings and waggles. The dog became more enthusiastic with each moment of the interview, until with his gleeful caperings he threatened to overturn the child. Whereupon the child lifted his hand and struck the dog a blow upon the head.

 This thing seemed to overpower and astonish the little dark-brown dog, and wounded him to the heart. He sank down in despair at the child's feet. When the blow was repeated, together with an admonition in childish sentences, he turned over upon his back, and held his paws in a peculiar manner. At the same time with his ears and his eyes he offered a small prayer to the child.

 He looked so comical on his back, and holding his paws peculiarly, that the child was greatly amused and gave him little taps repeatedly, to keep him so. But the little dark-brown dog took this chastisement in the most serious way, and no doubt considered that he had committed some grave crime, for he wriggled contritely and showed his repentance in every way that was in his power. He pleaded with the child and petitioned him, and offered more prayers.

 At last the child grew weary of this amusement and turned toward home. The dog was praying at the time. He lay on his back and turned his eyes upon the retreating form.

 Presently he struggled to his feet and started after the child. The latter wandered in a perfunctory way toward his home, stopping at times to investigate various matters. During one of these pauses he discovered the little dark-brown dog who was following him with the air of a footpad.

 The child beat his pursuer with a small stick he had found. The dog lay down and prayed until the child had finished, and resumed his journey. Then he scrambled erect and took up the pursuit again.

 On the way to his home the child turned many times and beat the dog, proclaiming with childish gestures that he held him in contempt as an unimportant dog, with no value save for a moment. For being this quality of animal the dog apologized and eloquently expressed regret, but he continued stealthily to follow the child. His manner grew so very guilty that he slunk like an assassin.

 When the child reached his door-step, the dog was industriously ambling a few yards in the rear. He became so agitated with shame when he again confronted the child that he forgot the dragging rope. He tripped upon it and fell forward.

 The child sat down on the step and the two had another interview. During it the dog greatly exerted himself to please the child. He performed a few gambols with such abandon that the child suddenly saw him to be a valuable thing. He made a swift, avaricious charge and seized the rope.

 He dragged his captive into a hall and up many long stairways in a dark tenement. The dog made willing efforts, but he could not hobble very skilfully up the stairs because he was very small and soft, and at last the pace of the engrossed child grew so energetic that the dog became panic-stricken. In his mind he was being dragged toward a grim unknown. His eyes grew wild with the terror of it. He began to wiggle his head frantically and to brace his legs.

 The child redoubled his exertions. They had a battle on the stairs. The child was victorious because he was completely absorbed in his purpose, and because the dog was very small. He dragged his acquirement to the door of his home, and finally with triumph across the threshold.

 No one was in. The child sat down on the floor and made overtures to the dog. These the dog instantly accepted. He beamed with affection upon his new friend. In a short time they were firm and abiding comrades.

 When the child's family appeared, they made a great row. The dog was examined and commented upon and called names. Scorn was leveled at him from all eyes, so that he became much embarrassed and drooped like a scorched plant. But the child went sturdily to the center of the floor, and, at the top of his voice, championed the dog. It happened that he was roaring protestations, with his arms clasped about the dog's neck, when the father of the family came in from work.

 The parent demanded to know what the blazes they were making the kid howl for. It was explained in many words that the infernal kid wanted to introduce a disreputable dog into the family.

 A family council was held. On this depended the dog's fate, but he in no way heeded, being busily engaged in chewing the end of the child's dress.

 The affair was quickly ended. The father of the family, it appears, was in a particularly savage temper that evening, and when he perceived that it would amaze and anger everybody if such a dog were allowed to remain, he decided that it should be so. The child, crying softly, took his friend off to a retired part of the room to hobnob with him, while the father quelled a fierce rebellion of his wife. So it came to pass that the dog was a member of the household.

 He and the child were associated together at all times save when the child slept. The child became a guardian and a friend. If the large folk kicked the dog and threw things at him, the child made loud and violent objections. Once when the child had run, protesting loudly, with tears raining down his face and his arms outstretched, to protect his friend, he had been struck in the head with a very large saucepan from the hand of his father, enraged at some seeming lack of courtesy in the dog. Ever after, the family were careful how they threw things at the dog. Moreover, the latter grew very skilful in avoiding missiles and feet. In a small room containing a stove, a table, a bureau and some chairs, he would display strategic ability of a high order, dodging, feinting and scuttling about among the furniture. He could force three or four people armed with brooms, sticks and handfuls of coal, to use all their ingenuity to get in a blow. And even when they did, it was seldom that they could do him a serious injury or leave any imprint.

 But when the child was present, these scenes did not occur. It came to be recognized that if the dog was molested, the child would burst into sobs, and as the child, when started, was very riotous and practically unquenchable, the dog had therein a safeguard.

 However, the child could not always be near. At night, when he was asleep, his dark-brown friend would raise from some black corner a wild, wailful cry, a song of infinite lowliness and despair, that would go shuddering and sobbing among the buildings of the block and cause people to swear. At these times the singer would often be chased all over the kitchen and hit with a great variety of articles.

 Sometimes, too, the child himself used to beat the dog, although it is not known that he ever had what could be truly called a just cause. The dog always accepted these thrashings with an air of admitted guilt. He was too much of a dog to try to look to be a martyr or to plot revenge. He received the blows with deep humility, and furthermore he forgave his friend the moment the child had finished, and was ready to caress the child's hand with his little red tongue.

 When misfortune came upon the child, and his troubles overwhelmed him, he would often crawl under the table and lay his small distressed head on the dog's back. The dog was ever sympathetic. It is not to be supposed that at such times he took occasion to refer to the unjust beatings his friend, when provoked, had administered to him.

 He did not achieve any notable degree of intimacy with the other members of the family. He had no confidence in them, and the fear that he would express at their casual approach often exasperated them exceedingly. They used to gain a certain satisfaction in underfeeding him, but finally his friend the child grew to watch the matter with some care, and when he forgot it, the dog was often successful in secret for himself.

 So the dog prospered. He developed a large bark, which came wondrously from such a small rug of a dog. He ceased to howl persistently at night. Sometimes, indeed, in his sleep, he would utter little yells, as from pain, but that occurred, no doubt, when in his dreams he encountered huge flaming dogs who threatened him direfully.

 His devotion to the child grew until it was a sublime thing. He wagged at his approach; he sank down in despair at his departure. He could detect the sound of the child's step among all the noises of the neighborhood. It was like a calling voice to him.

 The scene of their companionship was a kingdom governed by this terrible potentate, the child; but neither criticism nor rebellion ever lived for an instant in the heart of the one subject. Down in the mystic, hidden fields of his little dog-soul bloomed flowers of love and fidelity and perfect faith.

 The child was in the habit of going on many expeditions to observe strange things in the vicinity. On these occasions his friend usually jogged aimfully along behind. Perhaps, though, he went ahead. This necessitated his turning around every quarter-minute to make sure the child was coming. He was filled with a large idea of the importance of these journeys. He would carry himself with such an air! He was proud to be the retainer of so great a monarch.

One day, however, the father of the family got quite exceptionally drunk. He came home and held carnival with the cooking utensils, the furniture and his wife. He was in the midst of this recreation when the child, followed by the dark-brown dog, entered the room. They were returning from their voyages.

 The child's practised eye instantly noted his father's state. He dived under the table, where experience had taught him was a rather safe place. The dog, lacking skill in such matters, was, of course, unaware of the true condition of affairs. He looked with interested eyes at his friend's sudden dive. He interpreted it to mean: Joyous gambol. He started to patter across the floor to join him. He was the picture of a little dark-brown dog en route to a friend.

 The head of the family saw him at this moment. He gave a huge howl of joy, and knocked the dog down with a heavy coffee-pot. The dog, yelling in supreme astonishment and fear, writhed to his feet and ran for cover. The man kicked out with a ponderous foot. It caused the dog to swerve as if caught in a tide. A second blow of the coffee-pot laid him upon the floor.

 Here the child, uttering loud cries, came valiantly forth like a knight. The father of the family paid no attention to these calls of the child, but advanced with glee upon the dog. Upon being knocked down twice in swift succession, the latter apparently gave up all hope of escape. He rolled over on his back and held his paws in a peculiar manner. At the same time with his eyes and his ears he offered up a small prayer.

 But the father was in a mood for having fun, and it occurred to him that it would be a fine thing to throw the dog out of the window. So he reached down and grabbing the animal by a leg, lifted him, squirming, up. He swung him two or three times hilariously about his head, and then flung him with great accuracy through the window.

 The soaring dog created a surprise in the block. A woman watering plants in an opposite window gave an involuntary shout and dropped a flower-pot. A man in another window leaned perilously out to watch the flight of the dog. A woman, who had been hanging out clothes in a yard, began to caper wildly. Her mouth was filled with clothes-pins, but her arms gave vent to a sort of exclamation. In appearance she was like a gagged prisoner. Children ran whooping.

 The dark-brown body crashed in a heap on the roof of a shed five stories below. From thence it rolled to the pavement of an alleyway.

 The child in the room far above burst into a long, dirgelike cry, and toddled hastily out of the room. It took him a long time to reach the alley, because his size compelled him to go downstairs backward, one step at a time, and holding with both hands to the step above.

 When they came for him later, they found him seated by the body of his dark-brown friend.

Methods of English Language Teaching

Name         : Dwi Mufit W (10202244023)

                     Khoirun Nisa (10202244038)

Class           : PBI-5H

                     

Methods of English Language Teaching

There are many methods of teaching languages. For examples, Grammar translation method, direct method, compromise method, audiolingual method, communicative language teaching method, etc. Method is a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching something, especially a systematic or established one. However, we just want to explain three of them; grammar translation method, audiolingual method and communicative language teaching method.

1.      GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

The grammar-translation method of foreign language teaching is one of the most traditional methods, dating back to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was originally used to teach 'dead' languages (and literatures) such as Latin and Greek.

The method is based on the written word and texts are widely in evidence. A typical approach would be to present the rules of a particular item of grammar, illustrate its use by including the item several times in a text, and practise using the item through writing sentences and translating it into the mother tongue. The text is often accompanied by a vocabulary list consisting of new lexical items used in the text together with the mother tongue translation. Accurate use of language items is central to this approach.

Generally speaking, the medium of instruction is the mother tongue, which is used to explain conceptual problems and to discuss the use of a particular grammatical structure. It all sounds rather dull but it can be argued that the Grammar Translation method has over the years had a remarkable success. Millions of people have successfully learnt foreign languages to a high degree of proficiency and, in numerous cases, without any contact whatsoever with native speakers of the language (as was the case in the former Soviet Union, for example).

There are certain types of learner who respond very positively to a grammatical syllabus as it can give them both a set of clear objectives and a clear sense of achievement. Other learners need the security of the mother tongue and the opportunity to relate grammatical structures to mother tongue equivalents. Above all, this type of approach can give learners a basic foundation upon which they can then build their communicative skills.

Advantages and disadvantages

1.    Advantages

·      Reduced teacher stress

Resources for GTMs are easier to come by than other approaches and generally require less teacher involvement. Class activities or learning games are rarely necessary, as students are translating text to another language directly. Teachers who are not fluent in English (but fluent in the other language that the students primarily use) can teach English using this approach, as the emphasis is not on the spoken word but on translations. Communication between student and teacher is reduced with this method, which avoids misunderstandings and prevents language barriers that may occur in a method that focuses on teacher-student communication or verbal language learning.

·      Focus on Grammar, Sentence Structure and Word Meanings

Unlike a verbal approach to language learning, GTM focuses on the application of grammar and correct sentence structure. This is especially helpful in teaching students how to write and read in another language, allowing them to explore interchangeable words and phrases (e.g. different words for different tenses) more effectively than a verbal teaching method. The approach is also easily applied and can be less stressful on students; verbal teaching methods do not describe the application of grammar and sentence structure as effectively as GTM does. Word meanings are also easily learned through direct translation--a foreign word can be compared to the native language quickly. The method of comparing/translation of the learned language with a native language provides reference for students.

2.    Disadvantages

·      Learner Motivation and Participation

The GTM approach involves no learner participation and little teacher-student relationship. Students are required to learn from a textbook and use the same method throughout their learning. Because lessons using GTM are not interactive and engaging for students, they become more likely to lose interest in their subject and less motivated to learn. Furthermore, the method does not require students to participate in any activities or communicate with each other, so they will not learn how to use the language in a real-life conversation or situation and will only know how to translate one language to another.

·      Unnatural and Inaccurate Pronunciation

As children, people generally learn how to speak before they learn how to write and read. In the GTM approach, this natural learning method is reversed. Students are only taught how to read and write the language. This can affect how they learn to speak the learned language. The mere application of grammar and sentence structure cannot adequately prepare them for realistic conversations or verbal communication, as no emphasis is given to spoken language in the GTM approach. Translations may also be inaccurate, as it is not always possible to simply translate one word or phrase accurately to another language (for example, the translation of "computer" in English to Latin is not possible, as there is no Latin word for computer).

2.      COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING ( CLT )

All of the theoretical interests underlie what we can best describe as Communicative Language Teaching.  It is difficult to offer a definition of CLT.

It is a unified but broadly based, theoretically well informed set of tenets about the nature of language and of language learning and teaching. The following six interconnected characteristics as a description of CLT :

1.    Classroom goals are focused on all of the components ( grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic ) of communicative competence

2.    Language techniques are designed to engage learner in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Organizational language forms are not the central focus, but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes.

3.    Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques.

4.    Students in a communicative class ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed context outside the classroom.

5.    Student are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through the development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning.

6.    The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide, not an all-knowing bestover of knowledge.

   The characteristics of CLT are:

1.      Meaning is paramount

2.      Dialogues, if used, center around communicative functions and are normally memorized

3.      Contextualization is a basic premise

4.      Language learning is learning to communicate

5.      Effective communication is sought

6.      Drilling is may occur, but peripherally

7.      Comprehensible pronunciation is sought

8.      Any device that helps the learners is accepted varying according to their age, interest, etc

9.      Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very beginning

10.  Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible

11.  Translation may be used where student need or benefit from it

12.  Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired

13.  The target linguistic system is learned through the process of struggling to communicate

14.  Communicative competence is the desired goal

15.  Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methods

16.  Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content function or meaning that maintains interest

17.  Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language

18.  Language is often created by the individual through trial and error

19.  Fluency and acceptable language are the primary goals; accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context

20.  Student are expected to interact with other people

21.  Teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use

22.  Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.

A.     Learner-Centered Instruction

   This term applies to curricula as well as to specific techniques. It can be contrasted with teacher-centered, and has received various recent interpretations. Learner-centered instruction includes :

1.    Techniques that focus on or account for learners’ needs, styles, and goals.

2.    Techniques that give some control to the student

3.    Curricula that include the consultation and input of students and that do not presuppose objectives in advance

4.    Technique that enhance a student’s sense of competence and self-worth.

B.      Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

   A curriculum or classroom that is cooperative-and therefore not competitive-usually involves the learner-centered characteristics.

   As students work together in pairs and groups, they share information and come to each others’ aid.

   Cooperative learning does not merely collaboration. To be sure, in a cooperative classroom the students and teachers work together to pursue goals and objectives.

   Cooperative learning is more structures, more prescriptive to teacher about classroom techniques, more directive to students about how to work together in groups.

C.      Interactive Learning

   At the heart of current theories of communicative competence is the essentially interactive nature of communication. 

   Interactive classes will most likely be found :

1.      Doing a significant amount of pair work and group work

2.      Receiving authentic language input in real-world contexts

3.      Producing language for genuine, meaningful communication

4.      Performing classroom tasks that prepare them for actual language use “out there”

5.      Practicing oral communication through the give and take and spontancity of actual conversations

6.      Writing to and for real audiences, not contrived ones.

D.     Whole Language Education

One of the most popular terms currently sweeping through our profession, whole language has been so widely and divergently interpreted that it unfortunately is on the verge of losing the impact that it once had.

Whole language is a label that has been used to describe :

1.      Cooperative learning

2.      Participatory learning

3.      Student-centered learning

4.      Focus on the community of learners

5.      Focus on the social nature of language

6.      Use of authentic, natural language

7.      Meaning-centered language

8.      Holistic assessment techniques in testing

9.      Integration of the “four skills”

There are two interconnected concepts are brought together in whole language :

1.    The wholeness of language implics that language is not the sum of its many dissectible and discrete parts.

2.    Whole language is a perspective “anchored in a vision of an equitable, democratic, diverse society

E.      Content-Based Instruction ( CBI )

   The integration of content learning with language teaching aims.

More specifically, it refers to the concurrent study of language and subject matter, with the form and sequence of language presentation dictated by content material.

F.       Task-based Instruction

   Peter Skehan defines task as an activity in which :

1.      Meaning is primary

2.      There is some communication problem to solve

3.      There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities

4.      Task completion has some priority

5.      The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.

   A task is really a special form of technique.

   Task-based instruction is not a new method.

   Rather, it puts task at the center of one’s methodological focus.

    Task-based instruction is a perspective within CLT framework that forces you to carefully consider all the techniques that you use in the classroom in terms of a number of important pedagogical purposes.

Specifically, the communicative approach of teaching has the following three advantages:

1.    the interaction between students and teachers. Communicative teaching is becoming increasingly clear feature is the change in the way as the internship, students develop the subject, initiative and become increasingly important. Teacher-student relationship is an interactive, harmonious relationship, rather than the traditional education, the kind of master-servant relationship.

2.    to impart the basic knowledge and ability to skillfully combine the development. Traditional classroom teaching of English in the main body of the expense of home study, only emphasized the teachers on the knowledge of the systematic and integrity, which is a teacher-centered, knowledge-centered from the medieval "scholastic" teaching teaching methods inherited One consequence of the neglect of student ability. The communicative teaching emphasizes the learner's cognitive ability and operational capabilities, which allow the students themselves to think about and express their views, thus trained in real life the ability to use language to communicate.

3.    greatly enhanced the student's interest. Communicative teaching students to participate in, sometimes accompanied by scenes or simulated scenarios, so that students more close to life, the students became the main character, naturally they were interested in the English language, to learn English as a pleasure.

Communicative language teaching aims at the development and improvement of knowledge and skills that will help the speaker to make his/her communication successful and effective. No wonder that the establishment of the basic principles of CLT was a reaction against the previous prevailing language teaching method, which was based on linguistic competence. Chomsky's notion of Universal Grammar stated that language use is biologically encoded in the mind; it is an inherited competence. But one shall wonder at this point: 'What is the use of mere linguistic competence without one not being able to use it in everyday communication?' For the pedagogic procedure that followed this theory put great emphasis on formal and grammatical correctness and accuracy, instead on the most basic purpose of communication: to exchange information; to convey messages and to maintain social relationships. When language learning was an exclusively academic privilege and obsession in the past it was enough to concentrate only on structural correctness. But in the 21st century world, language teaching is no longer a luxury but a simple need. As Savignon points out "with the emergence of English as a global language, and with technological innovation and a growing need for learner autonomy challenging language teaching programs worldwide" the improvement and flourishing of a new, more effective method is inescapable (2007, p. 208).

3.     AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

The Audiolingual Method was developed in the U.S. during the Second World War. At that time, the U.S. government found it a great necessity to set up a special language-training program to supply the war with language personnel. Therefore, the government commissioned American universities to develop foreign language program for military personnel. Thus the Army Specialized Training Programme (ASTP) was established in 1942.The objectives of the army programme were for students to attain conversational proficiency in a variety of foreign languages. The method used was known as the “informant method ”, since it used a native speakers of the language, the informant , and a linguist. The informant served as a source of language for imitation, and the linguist supervised the learning experience. The intensive system adopted by the army achieved excellent results.

     Linguists and applied linguists during this period were becoming increasingly involved in the teaching of English as a foreign language. In 1941 the first English Language institute in the U.S. was established to in the University of Michigan. The director of the institute was Charles Fries, who applied the principles of structural linguists to language teaching. The result is an approach which advocated aural training first, then pronunciation training, followed by speaking, reading and writing.

     The emergence of the Audiolingual Method resulted from the increased attention to foreign language teaching in the U.S. towards the end of the 1950s.The need for a radical change and rethinking of foreign language teaching methodology made language teaching specialists set about developing a method that was applicable to conditions in U.S. college and university classrooms. They drew on the earlier experience of the army programmes and the Aural-Oral or structural Approach developed by Fries and his colleagues, adding insights taken from behaviorist psychology. This combination of structural linguistic theory, aural-oral procedures, and behaviourist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method, which was widely adopted for teaching foreign languages in North American colleges and universities.

This method of Language Learning is also called the Aural-Oral Method. This method is said to result in rapid acquisition of speaking and listening skills. The audiolingual method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. When this method was developed it was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the second language was through conditioning or helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.

The Audiolingual Method is based on the following principles:

• Speaking and listening competence preceded reading and writing competence.
• Use of German is highly discouraged in the classroom.
• The development of language skills is a matter of habit formulation.
• Students practice particular patterns of language through structured dialogue and drill until response is automatic.
• Structured patterns in language are taught using repetitive drills.
• The emphasis is on having students produce error free utterances.
• This method of language learning supports kinesthetic learning styles.
• Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.
• The printed word must be kept away from the second language learner as long as possible.